Holy Spirit

The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove above the Holy Family, painting by Juan Simon Gutierrez

In Christianity, the Holy Spirit (from Old English gast, “spirit”), is the spirit or essence of God. In Trinitarian Christian belief, the Holy Spirit is third person of the Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Pneumatology is the theology of the Holy Spirit.

Referred to for centuries as the Holy Ghost, a dimension of unreality and confusion has surrounded His person for a long time. In the New Testament imagery like dove,[Mt 3:16] [Mk 1:10] [Lk 3:22] [Jn 1:32] wind,[Jn 3:18] comforter[Jn 14:16] [14:26] [15:26] and power[Lk 1:35] is used in various places to describe the Holy Spirit.

Numerous outpourings of the Spirit are mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, in which healing, prophecy, the expelling of demons (exorcism), and speaking in tongues (glossolalia) are particularly associated with the activity of the Spirit.

This article describes the beliefs shared within mainstream Christianity and also those espoused by non-trinitarian Christians. Discussion is included regarding groups whose major theological premises share little in common with mainstream Christianity, as well as non-Christian religious groups.

Contents

Mainstream Christian doctrine

Within mainstream Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons of the Trinity. As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and Son of God.[1][2][3] He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (or from the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed.[2] His sacredness is reflected in the New Testament gospels[Mk 3:28-30] [Mt 12:30-32] [Lk 12:8-10] which proclaim blasphemy against the Holy Spirit as the unforgivable sin.

"Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"

The meaning of Holy Spirit and Holy Ghost are identical. Holy Ghost was the common name for the Holy Spirit in English prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the Book of Common Prayer, the Catholic Douay Rheims Bible and the King James Version (KJV), and is still widely used by English speakers whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the KJV. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the Anglican Church. The original meaning of the English word ghost closely paralleled the words spirit or soul; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations.[4]

In 1901 the American Standard Version of the Bible translated the name as Holy Spirit, as had the English Revised Version of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit.

"Pneuma" is the Greek word for spirit and is found 385 times in the New Testament. It is used in the general sense of spirit as well as the Holy Spirit, and can also mean wind or breath.

Divine function

The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include:

Holy Spirit and Jesus Christ

The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of Jesus Christ, enabling him to fulfill his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include:

Fruit of the Spirit

Christians believe the "Fruit of the Spirit" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in Galatians 5:22-23: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control."[11] The Roman Catholic Church adds to this list generosity, modesty, and chastity.[12]

Gifts of the Spirit

Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.[6] They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, Charisma, from which the term charismatic derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, tongues) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint Ambrose wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear.[13]

It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists.

One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.[14] This is the view of the Catholic Church[3] and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the Montanists, practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the Pentecostal movement in the late nineteenth century.[14]

Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism of the Holy Spirit or Filling of the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.[14]

Symbols of the Holy Spirit

Depiction of the Holy Spirit dove (ceiling fresco in St. Charles's Church, Vienna, 1700's)

The Holy Spirit is frequently referred to by metaphor and symbol, both doctrinally and biblically. Theologically speaking these symbols are a key to understanding of the Holy Spirit and his actions, and are not mere artistic representations.[3][15]

Variations in mainstream Christian doctrine

Catholicism

According to Roman Catholic theology the primary work of the Holy Spirit is through the church. According to the Catechism: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit. [...] Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."

Around the sixth century, the word Filioque was added to the Nicene Creed, defining as a doctrinal teaching that the Holy Spirit "proceeds from the Father and the Son." While the Eastern Catholic churches are required to believe the doctrinal teaching contained in the Filioque, they are not all required to insert it in the Creed when it is recited during services.

Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally, and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Roman Catholic Church and Western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque ("and the Son") in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. Filioque was mentioned for the first time at the Third Council of Toledo in 589 and it was added by the Roman Catholic Church to the Credo in the 11th century. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, as Christ says in John 15:26, and not from the Father and the Son, as the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches claim. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed). Oriental Orthodox usage coincides with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter. The Assyrian Church of the East also retains the original formula of the Creed without the Filioque.

Protestantism

The majority of mainstream Protestantism hold similar views on the theology of the Holy Spirit as the Roman Catholic Church, as described above. There are significant differences in belief between Pentecostalism and the rest of Protestantism.[1][17]

Other Christian views

Restoration Movement and Churches of Christ

During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture.[18] This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day."[18] He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation, but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another—by persuasion with words and ideas." This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian.[18] Since the early 20th century, many among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word-only" theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit.[19] As one student of the movement puts it, "[f]or better or worse, those who champion the so-called word-only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock."[18]

Pentecostalism

The Holy Spirit descending at Pentecost by Anthony van Dyck, circa 1618.
See also: Pentecostalism

While the Holy Spirit is acknowledged as God in all mainstream denominations, he is given particular emphasis in Pentecostal churches. In those churches he is seen as the giver of natural and supernatural gifts, such as tongues and prophecy, to modern-day Christians.

The Christian movement called Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem.[Acts 2] Pentecostals believe that when a believer is "baptized in the Holy Spirit", the gifts of the Spirit (also called the charismata) are activated in the recipient to edify the body of Christ, the church. Some of these gifts are listed in 1 Corinthians 12.

The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism differentiates the "baptism with the Holy Spirit" from the salvific born again experience, considering it a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the belief that the Christian can be more readily used to perform signs, miracles, and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for ministry within the church (the body of Christ) and the community. There are also some Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing". These Pentecostals believe that in the baptism in the Holy Spirit, the power of the Spirit is released in their lives.

Many Pentecostals believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues (glossolalia), and that tongues are one of several spiritual manifestations of the presence of the Holy Spirit in an individual believer's life.

Non-Trinitarian views

Main article: Nontrinitarianism

Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ significantly from orthodox Christian doctrine and generally fall into one of two categories. Some groups believe that the Holy Spirit is a separate being from God the Father and God the Son, and is 'one' with them in some other sense than of being one substance; Latter Day Saint beliefs fall within this category. Others believe that the Holy Spirit refers to some aspect or action of God (i.e., Modalism); Jehovah's Witness, Christadelphian, Unity Church, and Oneness Pentecostalism beliefs fall within this category.

Latter Day Saints

In the Latter-day Saint movement, the Holy Ghost (usually synonymous with Holy Spirit.)[20] is considered the third distinct member of the Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Ghost). The Holy Ghost is considered to be a son of God the Father,[21] and to have a body of "spirit,"[22] which makes him unlike the Father and the Son who are said to have bodies "as tangible as man's."[23]

Oneness Pentecostalism

Oneness Pentecostalism, as with other modalist groups, teach that the Holy Spirit is a mode of God, rather than a distinct or separate person, and that there is no personal distinction between God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is God's active force, and is not an actual person, but is more like God's divine "breath" or "energy", that he uses to accomplish his will and purpose, in creation, redemption, sanctification, and divine guidance, and they do not typically capitalize the term.[24] A Jehovah's Witness brochure quotes Alvan Lamson: "...the Father, Son, and... Holy Spirit [are] not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One... The very reverse is the fact."[25]

Christadelphians

Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's power or mind/character, depending on the context.

Unity Church

The Unity Church interprets the religious terms Father, Son, and Holy Spirit metaphysically, as three aspects of mind action: mind, idea, and expression. They believe this is the process through which all manifestation takes place.[26]

Non-Christian views

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith has the concept of the Most Great Spirit, seen as the bounty of God.[27] It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as Manifestations of God, and include among others Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh.[28] In Bahá'í belief the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the maid of heaven to Bahá'u'lláh.[29] The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.[30]

Islam

In Islam, the Created Spirit that acts as an agent of divine action or communication commonly identified with the angel Gabriel (ar: Jibreel) or Ruhul Qudus (Ruach HaKodesh in Hebrew) is called holy spirit, but also alternatively with the created spirit from God by which he enlivened Adam, and inspired the angels and the prophets. The belief in Trinity is explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an and called a grave sin. The same applies to any idea of the duality of God (Allah).[31][32]

Judaism

In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical. Nonetheless, the term Ruach HaKodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God.[33] The Rabbinic “Holy Spirit,” has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, “a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes” and not, as in Christianity, representative of “any metaphysical divisions in the Godhead.”[34]

See also shekhinah.

Rastafarianism

As a movement that developed out of Christianity, Rastafari has its own unique interpretation of both the Holy Trinity and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "Hola") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see 'I and I'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit.

Depiction in art

See also: God the Father in Western art

The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus like a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, as the Archangel Gabriel announces Christ's coming to Mary.

Annunciation by Rubens, 1628
Baptism of Christ by Pietro Perugino, circa 1498
The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly.
Stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Mary and St. John (Episcopal), Quezon City, Philippines
Scene by Filippo Lippi, 1459
Both Hands of God (relatively unusual) and the Holy Spirit as a dove in Baptism of Christ, by Verrocchio, 1472.

A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great─as recorded by his secretary or other church father authors, dictating their works to them.

The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.

The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.

Gender of the Holy Spirit

In Judaism

In Hebrew language texts, in the Old Testament of the Hebrew Bible the divine presence of God, the Holy Spirit, the Shekhinah is feminine.

In Islam

The term holy spirit translates in Arabic language الروح القدس and is used in the masculine form in all the Quran.

in Arabic language the word "Holy Spirit" doesn't translate as سكينة Sakinah used in a feminine term. The term sakinah means state of relaxation.

In Christianity

When in art a human material form is used to represent the Holy Spirit, that form is usually that of the male human body, without meaning to attribute such physical features to the reality represented. For example, in the rare cases of depiction of the Trinity as three identical persons, the Holy Spirit is represented as male, in line with the depictions of the Father and the Son.

There are some Christian groups who teach that the Holy Spirit is feminine, or has feminine aspects. Most are based on the genders of the verbs in the original Bible languages where the Holy Spirit is the subject. In Hebrew the word for spirit (ruach) is feminine.[35] In Greek the word (pneuma) is neuter,[35] and in Aramaic, the language which is generally considered to have been spoken by Jesus, the word is feminine. This is not thought by most linguists to have significance for the sex of the person given that name. There are biblical cases where the pronoun used for the Holy Spirit is masculine, in contradiction of the gender of the word for spirit.[Jn 16:13] [35]

The Syriac language, which was in common use around 300AD, is derived from Aramaic. In documents produced in Syriac by the early Miaphysite church (which later became the Syrian Orthodox Church) the feminine gender of the word for spirit gave rise to a theology in which the Holy Spirit was considered feminine.[36]

In 1977 a leader of the Branch Davidian church, Lois Roden, began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women, citing scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.

There are some other independent Messianic Judaism groups with similar teachings,[37] and some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead.[38][39][40]

The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God considering it to be "the love of Jehovah" and "love is always feminine".[41]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. p. 103. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright (1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine. (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 54–56 and 128–131. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm. 
  4. ↑ "Norfolk schools told Holy Ghost 'too spooky'". The Guardian (London). 2005-04-11. http://education.guardian.co.uk/faithschools/story/0,13882,1457028,00.html. Retrieved 2010-05-04. 
  5. ↑ The Holy Spirit and His Gifts. J. Oswald Sanders. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265–270. 
  7. ↑ Though the term "born again" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [1]
  8. ↑ T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright (1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine. (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. p. 134. 
  9. ↑ Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 267–268. 
  10. ↑ Karl Barth (1949). Dogmatics in Outline. New York Philosophical Library. p. 95. 
  11. ↑ {{cite book. Added 15th May 2010 - Galatians 5:22-23 actually is talking about the Human Spirit and not the Holy Spirit as misunderstood. Reading in context from the 1st verse shows you its talking about the Human spirit. In greek, Spirit is translated the same way, be it human or The Spirit of God, which is the misunderstood in this chapter. Also, the Holy Spirit does not bear fruits, so the fruits mentioned above are actually the fruits of the recreated human spirit (recreated - born again christian, filled with the Holy Spirit) | Edited = Pascal Patricks (Christ Embassy Church, Dublin) | author = Stephen F. Winward | year = 1981 | title = Fruit of the Spirit | publisher = Inter-Varsity Press }}
  12. ↑ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832.
  13. ↑ De Sacramentis 3.8.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265–275. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 David Watson (1973). One in the Spirit. Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 20–25. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Catechism of the Catholic Church.
  17. ↑ David Watson (1973). One in the Spirit. Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 39–64. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Douglas A. Foster, "Waves of the Spirit Against a Rational Rock: The Impact of the Pentecosat, Charismatic and Third Wave Movements on American Churches of Christ," Restoration Quarterly, 45:1, 2003)
  19. ↑ See for example, Harvey Floyd, Is the Holy Spirit for me?: A search for the meaning of the Spirit in today's church, 20th Century Christian, 1981, ISBN 978-0-89098-446-8, 128 pages
  20. ↑ Wilson, Jerry A. (1992). "Holy Spirit". In Ludlow, Daniel H.. Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Mcmillan. p. 651. ISBN 0-02-904040-X. http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,3768.  "The Holy Spirit is a term often used to refer to the Holy Ghost. In such cases the Holy Spirit is a personage."
  21. ↑ McConkie, Joseph Fielding (1992). "Holy Ghost". In Ludlow, Daniel H.. Encyclopedia of Mormonism. New York: Mcmillan. p. 649. ISBN 0-02-904040-X. http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,3766.  "[T]he Holy Ghost is a spirit man, a spirit son of God the Father."
  22. ↑ D&C 131:7-8 ("There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.")
  23. ↑ D&C 130:22.
  24. ↑ "Is the Holy Spirit a Person?". Awake!: 14–15. July 2006. http://www.watchtower.org/e/200607a/article_01.htm. "In the Bible, God’s Holy Spirit is identified as God’s power in action. Hence, an accurate translation of the Bible’s Hebrew text refers to God’s spirit as “God’s active force.”". 
  25. ↑ "Is It Clearly a Bible Teaching?", Should You Believe in the Trinity?, ©1989 Watch Tower, p. 7, Reproduced here.
  26. ↑ http://www.unitypaloalto.org/beliefs/twenty_questions.html
  27. ↑ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1981) [1904-06]. "The Holy Spirit". Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0877431906. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-25.html. 
  28. ↑ Taherzadeh, Adib (1976). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 10. ISBN 0853982708. http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha%27i/Others/ROB/V1/p007-011Ch01.html?back=%3C. 
  29. ↑ Abdo, Lil (1994). "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles". Bahá'í Studies Review 4 (1). http://bahai-library.com/abdo_female_holy-spirit. 
  30. ↑ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1981) [1904-06]. "The Trinity". Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 113–115. ISBN 0877431906. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-27.html. 
  31. ↑ Griffith, Sidney H. Holy Spirit, Encyclopaedia of the Quran.
  32. ↑ Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, p. 605.
  33. ↑ Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997).
  34. ↑ Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912).
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 "Catholic Exchange". http://catholicexchange.com/2006/06/24/83561/. Retrieved 2009-05-13. 
  36. ↑ http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm
  37. ↑ Joy In the World[2]; The Torah and Testimony Revealed [3].
  38. ↑ “Martin Luther, the originator of the Protestant movement, was not ashamed to think of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms.
  39. ↑ Church Fathers Believed the Holy Spirit was Feminine.
  40. ↑ For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject. [4][5][6].
  41. ↑ Charles Fillmore. Jesus Christ Heals. pp. 182–183. 

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